Acts

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Acts, by Chalmer E. Faw (Believers Church Bible Commentary)

Introduction

Relevance

Acts of the Apostles, situated as it is in the New Testament, bridges the content of the four gospels with the letters that follow. Jesus has instigated a movement, but where will it go now? What will become of his followers? Acts is the sole canonical narrative addressing how this history unfolds, giving important context for the letters that follow. Beginning from Jerusalem and spreading outward, it is the story of a people, empowered by a deluge of God’s Spirit, called to bear witness by their very lives to the new, post-ascension order of the world: Jesus is Lord of all (10:36; cf. 1:8; Luke 23:2). It is the story of turning the world upside down, defying Caesar, and declaring “another king named Jesus” (17:6-7, my translation throughout). More than simply a witness to historical events and figures, Acts offers contemporary disciples with a formative theological (even theopolitical) imagination in narrative form, presenting a distinct portrait of the world and the budding political body of God’s kingdom amid the powers of the world.

Unity and Authorship

Luke and Acts have long been understood as the work of a single author, and for some time have been linked by the designation, Luke-Acts. Though some more recently have questioned this designation, few dispute the authorial, narrative, or theological unity of Luke and Acts or that they are profitably read as a whole (see Green, 2011).

The author of both Luke and Acts is traditionally identified as Luke, the physician, a companion of Paul (Col 4:14; Philem 24; 2 Tim 4:11). Neither Luke nor Acts explicitly names an author, though both reference a common recipient, Theophilus (Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1-2), who likely served as the author’s patron.

Much attention is given to a series of passages in Acts where the narration switches from the third person to the first person (we), seemingly indicating the author’s presence (16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). Those who maintain that the author was not Paul’s companion argue either (1) that the author simply copied uncritically from their source, an argument that fails to appreciate the author’s literary skill, or (2) that narrating in the first person is a rhetorical device, designed to give the impression of reliability. Nevertheless, proponents of Luke’s authorship note that there is no evidence for such a rhetorical device, especially in the history-writing of the time (Nock, 1972: 827–28; Keener, 2012–2017: 3:2363–74). Though not conclusive, there is no clear reason to deny the traditional attribution to Luke, and there are some compelling reasons to see the author as Paul’s companion (hereafter designated as Luke) (Faw, 1993: 18).

Luke wrote more of the New Testament (by volume) than any other author, including Paul (undisputed and disputed letters combined). The Greek of Luke-Acts is some of most polished in the New Testament, and demonstrates an ability to shift into a Jewish, Septuagint-like style of narration where appropriate. Luke was obviously educated, understanding both Greco-Roman literature, rhetoric, history, society, and politics and Jewish customs and Scripture. There is little evidence of any special medical vocabulary, leading some to question whether a physician wrote the text. Nevertheless, some argue that the language would be consistent with that employed by a physician or that there is medical terminology, even if not distinctly technical (Faw, 1993: 18). Luke has also been traditionally understood as a Gentile, yet Luke-Acts demonstrates a thorough knowledge of Jewish practice and Scripture, leading others to argue plausibly that Luke was a Diaspora Jew (Smith, 2024).

Date and Context

Acts ends with Paul’s imprisonment in Rome (datable to the early 60s CE), and the earliest unambiguous reference to Acts comes from Irenaeus ca. 180 CE (Haer. 3.14.1; see Gregory, 2003), though some argue for earlier allusions (e.g., Polycarp Phil. 1.2; cf. Acts 2:24; see Keener, 2012–2017: 1:395-400). Thus, a hypothetical range of roughly 64–180 CE is possible. There are three general positions maintained among commentators: (1) before Paul’s execution and after arriving in Rome (64–67 CE), (2) late first century (75–100 CE), and 3) early second century (100–130 CE).

Though the earliest range (64–67 CE) has the benefit of explaining both the abrupt ending of Acts and why Paul’s death in Rome was not included, this dating has the least support among scholarship. Regarding the book’s conclusion, abrupt endings of this sort were not unheard of (e.g., Thucydides 8.109.1; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Thuc. 12; Mark 16:8). Further, despite the significant attention given to Paul and his movement toward Rome, Acts is not primarily a book about Paul. Rather, arguably, Acts primarily concerns God’s unfolding kingdom and the discipleship community that inhabits it (Reardon, 2001: 99–132, esp. 109–13), which is highlighted by the references to proclaiming the kingdom that frame Acts (1:3, 6; 28:23, 31). Understood in this way, ending Acts with Paul preaching boldly in Rome is appropriate, as it signals that the message of the kingdom has now reached the heart of imperial power (see “Form and Rhetoric” below).

Assuming that Acts 1:1-2 references Luke’s Gospel, Acts is generally dated after Luke, which most hold to be written after 70 CE. Among the reasons for Luke’s dating include determinations about Luke’s reliance on Mark (ca. 70 CE) and Luke’s apparent references to the temple’s destruction (70 CE) and the first Jewish War with Rome (66-73 CE; see e.g., 19:41-44; 21:20-24).

On the later end of the spectrum are those who argue for a date in the early second century. This position has gained some traction, though it is not the majority position. Those who maintain this position note three main issues: (1) there are a lack of early citations of Acts, (2) Acts appears to be dependent on works appearing later (e.g., Josephus or a collection of Paul’s letters), and (3) Acts shows concerns that were typical of the second-century church. Nevertheless, the data for these determinations are contested, often with the same data being used to argue for an earlier date.

Most commentators argue for a date around 75–100 CE, often early 80s, yet most also acknowledge that the evidence is not certain. Ultimately, both the median and the later dating are plausible, and a central determining factor is how one understands the author’s relationship to Paul. Assuming that the author was a companion of Paul (see discussion of authorship above), it is reasonable to date the work to the 80s CE.

Though several cities have been suggested as a place of origin for both Luke and Acts, including Ephesus, Antioch, and Rome, nothing definitely indicates the place from which Acts was written. More important for interpretation is a general knowledge of the diverse cities and provinces across the Roman Empire featured in Acts.

Form and Rhetoric

Acts is generally understood to be ancient historiography, which should be distinguished from modern history-writing and its expectations for disinterested objectivity. Though concerned with accuracy, ancient historiography is self-consciously interested narrative writing. Conventions of order and accuracy were also understood differently, which can be seen, for example, with the various speeches. Though a modern history might expect the verbatim replication of a speech, ancient historians often composed representative speeches to encapsulate the ideas of a historical figure that would not be represented by one specific speech. The speeches in Acts follow this convention, often sharing and building on themes from previous speeches (see Soards, 1994).

The designation “Acts” (praxeis) in the book’s title is not unique to the Acts of the Apostles. “Acts” could be used for biographical and historical works (e.g., Josephus, Ant. 14.68; Polybius, Hist. 1.1.1), but there are several later apocryphal “Acts” that tell various stories of early church figures, including the Acts of John, Acts of Paul, Acts of Paul and Thecla, Acts of Peter, Acts of Andrew, and the Acts of Thomas. These Acts, though perhaps relying on the canonical Acts as a prototype, lack the investigative concern of ancient historiography and more often conform to the form of an ancient novel.

Various suggestions for the purpose of Acts have been put forward, such as a document to defend Paul at trial, a defense of Paul to the rest of the church, a defense of Christianity to the Romans, or even a defense of Rome to Christians. During most of the twentieth century, it was common to portray Luke as concerned with the church’s standing within larger society, which included presenting a nonthreatening and pro-Roman church. This concern, it was supposed, resulted from disappointment in Jesus’ delay in returning. Nevertheless, most Lukan scholars have called this portrait into question (see Walton, 2002; Reardon, 2021: 18–27). For instance, the notions that Luke-Acts does not show interest in Jesus’ return or that it demonstrates a distinctly pro-Roman stance have fallen increasingly out of favor. Assuming the unity of Luke-Acts, Acts’ main purpose is outlined in Luke’s prologue as catachesis or teaching and formation (1:1-4).

Most simply, Acts is part of a work designed to help teach and form believers into the new Christian community (cf. Faw, 1989: 19–21). It presents a theological vision of the world in which Jesus is Lord and Caesar is not (see Rowe, 2009: 103–16). Further, Acts is oriented toward the unfolding of God’s kingdom (1:3, 6; 28:23, 31; see “Date and Context” above). Acts witnesses to the beginning of a larger story that continues beyond the boundaries of the book, the unfolding reality of this other political reality, God’s kingdom, amid the powers of the world (“to the end of the earth,” 1:8; see Reardon, 2021: 109–10). Thus, Acts’ ending, with an imprisoned Paul boldly proclaiming God’s kingdom at the heart of empire, invites the church to see itself continuing this story, witnessing to God’s kingdom amid the powers and authorities of today.

Outline of Acts

I. The Jerusalem Community (1:1–8:1a)
A. Beginnings: Instruction, Ascension, and the Pre-Pentecost Community (1:1-26)
B. Pentecost and the Community of Mutuality (2:1-47)
C. Peter and John Preach, Heal, and Get Arrested (3:1–4:31)
D. The Faithful and Unfaithful amid the Community of Goods (4:32–5:11)
E. The Disciples Again Preach and Meet the Jewish Leadership (5:12-42)
F. Dissension among the Community (6:1-7)
G. Stephen, the First Martyr, and Fleeing Jerusalem (6:8–8:1a)
II. Dispersing Outward from Jerusalem (8:1b–12:25)
A. Philip in Samaria and the Ethiopian Eunuch (8:1b-40)
B. Saul’s Encounter with the Lord (9:1-31)
C. Peter, Two Healings, and a Righteous Centurion (9:32–11:18)
D. Barnabas, Saul, and the Church in Antioch (11:19-30)
E. James’s Death and Herod’s Injustice (12:1-25)
III. Paul’s Travel Narrative (13:1–21:14)
A. Paul and Barnabas’s First Journey (13:1–14:28)
B. The Jerusalem Council (15:1-35)
C. Paul Continues Spreading the Word (15:36–18:22)
D. Paul in Ephesus (18:23–19:41)
E. Paul’s Journey to Jerusalem (20:1–21:14)
IV. The Passion of Paul (21:15-28:31)
A. Paul’s Arrest in Jerusalem (21:15–23:35)
B. Paul’s Imprisonment in Caesarea (24:1–26:32)
C. Paul’s Voyage to Rome (27:1–28:16)
D. Paul in Rome (28:17-31)

Summary and Comment

Acts 1:1–8:1a The Jerusalem Community

Acts 1:1-26 Beginnings: Instruction, Ascension, and the Pre-Pentecost Community
Acts begins as Luke ended, with Jesus’ Ascension, an event narrated only in Luke-Acts (Luke 24:44-53; Acts 1:9-11; cf. Eph 4:9). Jesus appears to his disciples over a forty-day period, instructing them about God’s kingdom and to wait in Jerusalem for the promise of the Father, the Holy Spirit, before he is eventually taken up to heaven. Many foundational themes appear here, including the following.

Witness. Jesus tells the disciples that they will be his witnesses from Jerusalem to Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth (1:8). Witness is a recurring theme through the work. In one sense, witness concerns a message about Jesus and especially the resurrection (1:23). However, witness also involves the imitation of Jesus; thus, the lives of disciples such as Stephen and Paul are presented as recapitulating aspects of Jesus’ life and death. Appropriately, the term “martyr” derives from the Greek word for “witness” (see Faw, 1989: 37–38).

Ascension. More than a convenient explanation for Jesus’ absence (as Jesus is not absent in Acts, e.g., 9:1-9), the ascension is Jesus’ enthronement, and as such, the victory of God’s kingdom. Narratively, the ascension serves to set the stage. Everything hereafter unfolds in a world in which Jesus is enthroned as Lord of all (cf. 10:38), and the disciples’ witness to the resurrection is simultaneously a witness to God’s kingdom. This kingdom is not pushed to the future or a spiritual realm; rather, it is inbreaking from on high, manifesting now, by the power of God’s Spirit. Further, heaven is not a place one goes at death, it is the locus of divine authority, and the movement asserted in Acts is the coming of heaven to transform earth (God’s kingdom come), witnessed to by the Spirit and the expectation of Jesus’ return (Reardon, 2021: 100–116; see also Sleeman, 2009; Walton, 2016).

Following Jesus’ ascension, the disciples—roughly 120 women and men—gather in a Jerusalem upper room and select Judas’s replacement, Matthias (1:15-26). Here, and in the ensuing narrative, Peter plays the central role (e.g., 3:1-6; 4:8; 5:3; though cf. 5:29; 6:2).

Acts 2:1-47: Pentecost and the Community of Mutuality
A few days after Jesus’ ascension, during Pentecost (Shavuot), a Jewish harvest festival that saw an influx of pilgrims from all over the Jewish Diaspora, the Holy Spirit descends. Amid both wonder and mockery from the crowd, Peter proclaims that Jesus is Lord and the Messiah, casting Jesus as the expected Davidic Messiah who will restore Israel (Strauss, 1995). The crowd responds with mass repentance and baptism, leading to the swelling of the Jerusalem community by thousands.

The Jerusalem community was an important image for early Anabaptist communities. Pentecost results in a community of common life, worship, and economic reciprocity (vv. 42-47). The community lives in koinōnia (fellowship/mutuality), a term that refers to different levels of economic sharing from business ties to the abolition of private property. Though opinions differ concerning what degree of economic fellowship is described here, it is more than a “spirit of unity.” The community would sell their possessions and distribute the proceeds based on need (2:45; 4:32-37), calling nothing their own, but having “all things in common” (2:44; 4:32). In this tangible way, they are “the faithful.” This story is not portrayed as a failed utopian experiment, but as a faithful manifestation of community worthy of learning from (Faw, 1989: 49–50; Walton, 2008).

From here on out, the Holy Spirit plays a central role, forming, guiding, and empowering the work of the community. Though the Spirit empowers the church’s proclamation, she is given to all, not just those gifted for speaking, and empowers the community’s common life (Wenk, 2000). Moreover, the bestowal of God’s Spirit was tied to the eschatological restoration of Israel, which Acts presents as beginning to unfold now (Turner, 1996; Pao, 2000).

Perhaps the most frequently noted element of this story is the phenomenon of speaking in tongues (glossolalia). Here, the languages are known languages, not an angelic language (cf. 1 Cor 13:1). Though some see here a reversal of the curse of Babel (Gen 11:1-9), the Pentecost story affirms diversity not uniformity (Green, 2008). Rather than speaking a language like Greek or Latin, languages imposed by empire and conquest, the Spirit enables each to hear in their own language, an intimate affirmation of diversity.

Acts 3:1–4:31: Peter and John Preach, Heal, and Get Arrested
The community continues to grow. The apostles demonstrate signs and wonders, proclaiming Jesus’ resurrection, and tension grows with the Jewish leadership. Here, Peter and John heal a man who cannot walk (3:1-10) and, subsequently, witness to Jesus, with the community’s numbers climbing to around 5,000 (4:4).

A major complaint from the priests and Sadducees is that the disciples are causing civil unrest, a real concern when one considers the record of civil disturbance in Jerusalem at the time. In fact, the Jerusalem leadership is unable to punish them more severely because of the favor they hold with the people (v. 21), echoing Jesus’ early favor with the people (Luke 19:47-48; 20:6, 19, 26; cf. Acts 5:13, 26). Nevertheless, just as such favor did not last for Jesus (Luke 23:13), neither will it last for the disciples (Acts 6:12). Peter and John having been released, the section ends with the community in prayer for boldness (4:23-31).

Acts 4:32–5:11: The Faithful and Unfaithful amid the Community of Goods
The Jerusalem material in Acts moves between public proclamations and community dynamics. After a general summary of the community’s economic divestment, redistribution, and mutuality, both a positive and negative example are given. The positive example is Barnabas, Paul’s future partner (11:22-26, 30; 12:25; 13:2), who shares the proceeds from selling property. The negative example, and one of the more difficult passages in Acts, involves Ananias and Sapphira, who sell property but “hold back” from the proceeds, implying they skimmed money off the top. They have subverted the new economy, keeping for themselves what has been declared common. This undermines the viability of the community itself. However one overcomes the interpretive issues, the community is not simply idyllic (see Faw, 1989: 69–71).

Acts 5:12-42: The Disciples Again Preach and Meet the Jewish Leadership
This section parallels 3:1–4:31, though everything is magnified. Rather than one act of healing, there are “many” (v. 12), including people from surrounding towns (vv. 15-16). More believers than ever were being added (v. 13). The antagonists include not simply priests, but the high priest, and they are not simply annoyed but are filled with an indignant fervency (or zeal, NRSV jealousy, v. 17). The apostles are not only arrested but imprisoned and miraculously released by an angel (vv. 18-20), and the antagonists are not simply hindered by the people but fear that the people will stone them (v. 26; cf. 7:54–8:1).

Interestingly, the council compares Jesus’ disciples to the insurrectionist movements of Theudas and Judas the Galilean, who led a tax revolt during “the census” (vv. 36-37). Jesus appears to be born during this census (Luke 2:1-7), and he is also accused of conspiring to lead a tax revolt (Luke 23:2; cf. 20:20-26).

Acts 6:1-7: Dissension among the Community
A crisis develops over table service, showing divisions amid Jewish cultural expressions (Hellenistic and Hebraic). The apostles select seven Hellenists (those more culturally Greek) to oversee the food distribution, giving authority to the group that was experiencing exclusion. In the process, the apostles assert that they should not neglect preaching the word for serving tables, yet, ironically, “service” is precisely the virtue that Jesus exhorts disciples to adopt (Luke 22:27). Thus, fittingly, the most immediately significant protagonists following this scene are not the apostles but two of “the Seven” just chosen to serve tables, Stephen (6:8–8:1a) and Philip (8:9-40; cf. 21:28). In fact, we never see them waiting on tables, only proclaiming God’s word.

Acts 6:8–8:1a: Stephen, the First Martyr, and Fleeing Jerusalem
Stephen’s martyrdom is a major turning point in the narrative. Stephen, amid a civic fervor, is accused of speaking against Moses (and the Law), the temple, and God (6:11-14). Nevertheless, Stephen’s reply does not directly criticize the temple or the Law. Rather, Stephen turns the accusations back on his accusers, outlining how their present rejection of Jesus is part of a historical pattern that includes disobeying the Law (7:53), Moses (7:35) and the proper worship of God (7:42-44). The temple, to this point in the story, has been central to the Jesus community’s worship (2:46; 3:1; 5:12, 42), and the assertion that “the Most High does not live in that which is made with hands,” reflected in Stephen’s citation of Isaiah 66:1-2 (7:48-50), was not an attack on the temple. Rather, other Jews would have certainly agreed with this sentiment. As Chalmer Faw notes, “The speech is indeed hotly polemical but must be considered as intra-Jewish polemic, in the vein of OT prophetic judgment against Israel” (1989: 91). Nevertheless, the crowd does finally erupt when Stephen asserts that they (those in Jerusalem) also now oppose the Spirit, which may imply a debate about where and how God’s Spirit is active (v. 51).

Stephen’s death is told echoing elements of Jesus’ death, with the important difference that Stephen addresses his final words to the “Lord, Jesus” (8:59-60) whereas Jesus’ words were directed to his “Father” (Luke 23:34, 46). Stephen asks Jesus to receive his Spirit (v. 59; cf. Luke 23:46) and to forgive his accusers’ wrongs (v. 60; cf. Luke 23:34).

Acts 8:1b–12:25: Dispersing Outward from Jerusalem

Acts 8:1b-40: Philip in Samaria and the Ethiopian Eunuch
After Stephen’s stoning, violent harassment forces much of the assembly (ekklēsia) to flee throughout Judea and Samaria (8:1). Overseeing Stephen’s death was a young man named Saul (7:58; 8:1), who is now going from house to house, arresting men and women of the assembly (cf. 9:1-2). Philip, one of the Seven (6:5), witnesses in Samaria (8:4-25) and to an Ethiopian eunuch (8:26-40). There is some disagreement whether this Ethiopian is a Jew or a Gentile. There was a large Diaspora population associated with Ethiopia, but he is never identified as Jewish in the text; and it was not uncommon for Gentiles to worship at the temple. Being a eunuch would limit his participation in temple activities (Lev 21:16-24). Deuteronomy 23:1 indicates that a eunuch cannot be admitted to the Lord’s assembly (ekklēsia, LXX). However, Isaiah, the prophet the man is reading (vv. 30-34), speaks of a day when loyal eunuchs will be specially honored (56:3-5). The implication is that now is that eschatological time.

Acts 9:1-31: Saul’s Encounter with the Lord
The narrative shifts to Saul, who is traveling to Damascus to arrest members of “the Way” (8:3; 9:1-2; cf. Gal 1:13). Before reaching Damascus, Saul encounters “the Lord” Jesus in a dramatic scene, knocking Paul off his horse and leaving him blind (see also 22:6-16; 26:12-18). This episode is often referred to as Saul’s “conversion.” In a general sense, it is correct that Saul’s life takes a significant turn; nevertheless, the term “conversion” is misleading, anachronistically implying that Saul’s “conversion” is from “Judaism” to “Christianity.” There was no conception at the time of a religion called “Christianity” distinct from “Judaism”; Saul changes from a Jewish man who denied that Jesus was Israel’s messiah, to a Jewish man who affirmed it.

Saul’s new purpose is to bring Jesus’ name before Gentiles, kings, and Israelites (vv. 15-16). Spending time in Damascus preaching, he eventually flees, being lowered in a basket through the city wall (cf. 2 Cor 11:32-33), after hearing of an assassination plot (Acts 9:23). Paul then connects with the church in Jerusalem before fleeing again, this time to Tarsus, in the face of another murder plot (vv. 26-30).

Acts 9:32–11:18: Peter, Two Healings, and a Righteous Centurion
The narrative turns to Peter, who performs two healings (9:32-35, 36-43) before encountering Cornelius the centurion (10:1-48). Centurions were notorious for abusing power, yet Cornelius is described as a righteous Gentile (v. 35), praying and offering alms (v. 2). These acts are portrayed as pleasing sacrifices ascending to God (v. 4), which appears the basis for Cornelius being declared “clean.” The narrative, however, seems more focused on Peter’s conceptual transformation. Peter receives a vision concerning food, yet it is not about undoing kosher regulations. No one in the narrative makes this connection, and Peter’s confusion is only relieved when he realizes that it was about clean people—10:34 is best read “I am beginning to understand.” God determines Cornelius clean prior to Peter’s arrival, so that when Cornelius receives the Spirit, it functions more as a testimony to Peter (v. 45; 15:8). Cornelius’s clean state now enables his reception of the Spirit. When Peter retells this story to the “circumcised believers” in Jerusalem (11:2), he highlights the giving of the Spirit as the moment where he understood what God was doing (11:1-18; see Reardon, 2016).

Acts 11:19-30: Barnabas, Saul, and the Church in Antioch
As the assembly spreads out from its persecution in Jerusalem, the assembly gathered in Syrian Antioch begins witnessing to the Gentiles with considerable success. Barnabas and Saul join this community as teachers. Later, Agabus, a prophet, comes to Antioch from Jerusalem prophesying a famine. Here, the economy of mutuality extends beyond Jerusalem and incorporates communities in different cities (see Faw, 1989: 142–43). This economic sharing contrasts greatly with the actions of Herod (Agrippa I) in the following chapter (12:20-23).

Acts 12:1-25: James’s Death and Herod’s Injustice
In Acts 12, we return to Jerusalem and the apostles. The life of the community is contrasted with the actions of “Herod,” Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great (Matt 2:1-15; Luke 1:5), who reigned as a Roman client king from 41–44 CE. Agrippa has James the apostle killed, and prepares for Peter’s execution, though an angel helps Peter escape.

After this, an account of Agrippa’s hoarding and manipulation of food supplies, threatening Tyre and Sidon, contrasts starkly with the discipleship communities. Seemingly amid bribes and flattery, the people extol Agrippa as a god, which Agrippa does not reject; as a result, he is struck down and eaten by worms. Idolatry, oppression, and economic hoarding are not distinct here. The contrast is brought home when, immediately following Agrippa’s death, the narrative returns to Saul and Barnabas completing the delivery of Antioch’s economic relief to Jerusalem.

Acts 13:1–21:14: Paul’s Travel Narrative

Acts 13:1–14:28: Paul and Barnabas’s First Journey
The narrative now shifts its concentration to Saul (soon Paul, see below) and his work among the nations. Saul and Barnabas, commissioned by the Spirit at Antioch, journey to Cyprus (13:4-12), southern Asia Minor, including the cities of Pisidian Antioch (vv. 14-52), Iconium (14:1-5), Lystra (14:6-20), and Derbe (14:21), and back to Antioch (vv. 21-28). The general (though not consistent) pattern of these visits involves visiting a local synagogue (13:5, 14, 16; 14:1), some positive reception (13:42-43; 14:1), and Jewish opposition stirring up Gentiles (13:47, 50; 14:2, 5, 19). In each city, they established an assembly and appointed leaders.

Initially, we read of “Barnabas and Saul” (11:30; 12:25; 13:2, 7). However, the text shifts to referring to Saul as Paul (13:9), which draws attention to Paul’s hybrid identity (Jewish, Greek, and Roman) and to the predominantly Gentile contexts Paul now inhabits. Additionally, though Barnabas is initially listed first (cf. 13:1-2, 7), Paul soon takes center stage in naming (“Paul and Barnabas,” 13:42-43, 46, 50, and ch. 15; though 14:12, 14; 15:12), activity (13:16, 45; 14:9, 11), and narration (cf. 13:13).

Acts 15:1-35: The Jerusalem Council
Between Paul’s journeys, Acts handles the question of Gentiles and Torah. Some were teaching Gentiles that salvation required circumcision (for males) and Torah observance (15:1, 5), which Paul and Barnabas opposed (cf. Gal 2:1-10). Present at the council are Paul, Barnabas, Peter, James, and some “faithful” Pharisees. Importantly, though these Pharisees assert the unaccepted position, they are not outsiders. They are explicitly faithful members of the community. Pharisees (including Paul, 23:6; 26:5; cf. Phil 3:5) were part of the early Jesus movement and were certainly part of “the entire assembly (ekklēsia)” who were “united” around the council’s decision (v. 22).

Gentiles are welcomed as a distinct people (15:14) within the Davidic tent (15:16-17; citing Amos 9:11-12 LXX), not as members of Israel. In Acts, “Israel” only ever refers to the historic, ancestral people Israel (e.g., 2:36; 4:27; 5:21; 7:23; 9:15; 10:36; 13:17, 23-24; 28:20), and Gentiles are not “spiritual Israel.” Further, though the dispute addresses whether Gentiles should keep the Law of Moses (i.e., Torah), the issue is not whether Torah is relevant (and certainly not whether it has been abolished). Rather, their concern is how Torah applies to Gentiles. James’s response recognizes the common Jewish perception that Torah observance, broadly, was for Jews and not expected of Gentiles, while simultaneously deriving guidance from both Torah and the Prophets (i.e., Amos). James’s four stipulations for Gentiles appear to derive from Torah, the prescriptions for resident aliens living among Israel in Leviticus 17–18. In citing these stipulations and noting that Moses (i.e., Torah) has been preached throughout the Diaspora, James affirms Torah’s guidance (vv. 20-21) in conjunction with the Spirit.

Acts 15:36–18:22: Paul Continues Spreading the Word
Paul and Barnabas make plans for a second journey, but a disagreement over bringing John Mark (who abandoned them earlier, 13:13) leads them to part ways (15:36-39). Paul continues with Silas (vv. 22, 32-33; cf. 2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1; 1 Pet 5:12) overland through Syria to Cilicia (vv. 40-41), picking up Timothy in Lystra (16:1-5). They then move through central Asia Minor (Galatia and Phrygia) to Troas, on the Aegean Sea. In response to a vision Paul travels to Philippi, and then around the Aegean to Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, and Corinth. At 16:10, the narrative voice first speaks in the first person plural “we.”

Paul’s stops involve the same general pattern with minor variations. He visits synagogues (17:1, 10, 17; 18:4, 19, though cf. 16:13, 16). Some dissension develops involving different groups, with Paul being arrested or seized extrajudicially and tried (16:19-40; 17:6-9, 18-21; 18:12-17). Major antagonists include, in Philippi, residents of the city; in Thessalonica, “the Jews” (17:5); in Beroea, though the synagogue accepts Paul’s words, Jews from Thessalonica come stirring up the city (17:11-13); in Athens, local philosophers (17:18-19); and in Corinth, local Jews (18:12-13). Finally, after eighteen months in Corinth, where he meets Priscilla and Aquila (18:2), Paul sails home to Antioch stopping briefly in Ephesus, where he leaves Priscilla and Aquila (18:18-21). His time in Antioch is narrated with one sentence before he returns to Asia Minor.

Paul exists precariously in multiple spaces. Philippians accuse Paul of being a Jew who advocates practices unlawful for Romans (16:21), but in Corinth, Paul is accused of teaching against the Jewish Law (18:13). Paul often affirms his Jewishness (19:33; 21:39; 23:6; 26:4-6), even taking a Nazarite vow (18:18; see Num 6:1-21). Nevertheless, he also asserts Roman identity strategically (16:37-38; 22:25-39; 23:27). Everywhere he goes unrest follows. Even in Athens at the Areopagus (Mars Hill), Paul is not simply waxing philosophical but stands trial as a Socrates-type, accused of proclaiming foreign deities (17:16-34; cf. Diogenes Laertius, Lives 240). In Thessalonica, Paul is accused of upsetting the civilized world by proclaiming another king in opposition to Caesar’s decrees (17:6-7).

Acts 18:23–19:41: Paul in Ephesus
The narrative has anticipated Paul’s arrival in Ephesus (16:6; 18:19-21), a major trading hub and the largest and most prosperous city in Asia Minor—though, first, we first meet Apollos (18:24-28; see 1 Cor 1:12). Particularly prominent in Paul’s Ephesus scene (19:1-41) is Paul’s spiritual power, its destabilizing impact, and the connection of wealth and idolatry. Spiritual power and idolatry prove to be valuable commodities in Ephesus, and Paul’s activity proves disruptive, specifically of the cult of Artemis, costing some people a lot of money, leading to another conflict (see Rowe, 2009: 41–49).

In 19:21-22, the narrative is interrupted by Paul reflecting on his future plans. He determines to return to Jerusalem, passing through Macedonia and Achaia. His comment that he must also see Rome, offers an ominous note, as the reader likely knows his fate. This narrative pivot point mirrors Jesus setting his face to Jerusalem in Luke 9:51. Further, Paul’s words “it is necessary” (dei) echo Jesus’ passion predictions (Luke 9:22; 13:33; 17:25; cf. 21:9; 22:37; 24:7, 44). Now, the narrative that follows takes a somber turn (cf. Acts 19:21; 20:22-23).

Acts 20:1–21:14: Paul’s Journey to Jerusalem
The narrative pace accelerates as we move toward Jerusalem. Leaving Ephesus, Paul travels to Macedonia and Greece and back again through Macedonia to Troas (20:1-6), where he heals a young man named Eutychus (vv. 7-12). The first-person plural (“us,” “we”) also appears again when Paul leaves Philippi (v. 5) and continues consistently in the remaining journey narratives. From Troas, the party moves in haste to Miletus (vv. 13-16). Central to this section is Paul’s farewell address to the Ephesian leaders (20:17-38), when he somberly informs them that he heads to Jerusalem bound by the Spirit. As Paul continues his journey, many (including the narrator, 21:12) seek to convince Paul to change his path, yet Paul knows he must continue.

Acts 21:15–28:31: The Passion of Paul

Acts 21:15–23:35 Paul’s Arrest in Jerusalem Upon arriving in Jerusalem, Paul is greeted warmly by James and the elders who praise his work (vv. 21:15-20). Nevertheless, they inform him of many thousands of faithful around Jerusalem who are dedicated to Torah and have heard that he teaches Diaspora Jews to neglect Torah observance (vv. 18-26). To correct this false perception, at James’s suggestion, Paul participates in and funds the temple purification rites for four men (see Num 6; cf. Acts 18:18).

In the process, some from the province of Asia, seeing Paul in the temple, stir up a crowd, accusing Paul of speaking against the people, the Law, and the temple and of defiling the temple by bringing in a Gentile (21:27-40; cf. 6:13). Before the crowd can stone him, Paul is taken into Roman custody. After learning that Paul is a Roman citizen (cf. 16:37-38), he remains in Roman custody. The next day he addresses the Jewish council (22:30–23:11), where he identifies as a Pharisee who is being tried because of the resurrection, a belief held by Pharisees but typically denied by Sadducees (cf. 4:1-2). This divides Paul’s opposition, and so Paul is taken back into Roman custody. After an assassination plot against Paul is uncovered, he is transferred to Caesarea Maritima and the Roman governor Felix.

Acts 24:1–26:32: Paul’s Imprisonment in Caesarea Paul spends the next two years in Caesarea, first under Felix (24:1-26) and then Porcius Festus (24:27–26:32), making three major defenses: before Felix (24:1-23), before Festus (25:6-12), and before Agrippa II and Bernice (25:23–26:32). Felix shows little concern for resolving the matter. However, Festus seeks to resolve the matter expeditiously. When Paul is faced with the proposition of standing trial in Jerusalem, Paul appeals to Caesar. At this time, that would mean appealing to Nero (who reigned from 54–68 CE), a notoriously volatile ruler. Notably, Festus seeks help in finding something to charge Paul with, which mirrors Jesus’ trial and highlights the Roman injustice, which is itself on trial.

Acts 27:1–28:16: Paul’s Voyage to Rome Paul, with a cohort of Roman soldiers and other prisoners, makes his difficult journey to Rome through storm and shipwreck. When coming to Italy, Paul is met there by resident Christians and is held under house arrest.

Acts 28:17-31: Paul in Rome In Rome, Paul first declares Jesus to the local Jewish leaders. The result is similar to Paul’s efforts elsewhere: some were convinced and others were not. In response, Paul cites a stinging word from Isaiah and declares that “God’s salvation” is sent to the Gentiles—and they will listen. Despite claims to the contrary, Paul does not reject Israel or claim that God does (see Faw, 1989: 295). The claim to turn to the Gentiles is not new (13:46; 18:6), and in each instance, Paul subsequently goes to synagogues. Nor is this a rejection of “Judaism.” Paul has continuously identified himself as a faithful Jew and observer of Torah. Nor, especially, is there any indication that the church is the new Israel, superseding the old “Jewish” Israel. Paul makes no assertion that God’s promises to Israel have been removed from Israel and given to others. The words Paul cites from Isaiah need not be seen as any more anti-Judaic or anti-Israel than when they were originally uttered. Instead, the ending of Acts comes amid tension, a tension that will not find narrative resolution because it is not historically resolved. God’s chosen people have in large part not followed God’s chosen Messiah—however, the exceptions include several thousand Jewish believers noted by James in Jerusalem (21:20).

We are left with Paul preaching in Rome, as Richard J. Cassidy translates the final four words of Acts, “with all boldness; unintimidated” (Cassidy, 2011: 147). The point is not that the Roman authorities were liberal with Paul. Rather, Paul sits at the center of Roman power, boldly declaring another king. The final scene in Rome might, for some, leave much to be desired. Why have we been forewarned about Paul’s death, only to see the story stop before anything like a trial or execution happens? Several theories have been proposed to explain this apparent absence. However, we should note that the book’s rhetoric aims at the spreading kingdom, not Paul’s life—however central it may seem. The ending remains open as the narrative of God’s salvation continues to push forward. With Paul in Rome, the destabilizing proclamation of another king has made its way to the center of Roman power, which for those who know Paul’s story, is likely a satisfying and inspiring ending in itself.

Conclusion and the Anabaptist Tradition

For early Anabaptist communities that sought to free themselves from what they saw as the corruptions of the institutional church and territorial authorities, Acts of the Apostles was a key text for understanding what the church should or could look like. Though this might have been taken by some as a naïve attempt to restore the church to some initial, idyllic form, it need not be. Acts portrays a church concerned with visible, embodied community, characterized by common table fellowship, learning, worship, prayer, and economic mutuality, living joyously and in simplicity (2:42-47). Though this community sees divisions and dissension, the ideals of the community are not portrayed as immature or abandoned, but as virtues worth pursuing. Acts continues to address issues of economics and fellowship, and the community offers a model of virtues contrasted to those of the powers around them. Crucially, however, this community is not simply an example of economic and social practices, but centers on embodied faithfulness to one another, forged by their faithfulness to Jesus and guided by the Spirit. The community is vivified by a vision of the true order of the world, confessing that Jesus is Lord.

The proclamation in Acts centers on this confession, that Jesus is Lord and Messiah, declaring that the true, abiding sociopolitical and cosmic structure of the world is evidenced by the ascended Jesus and not by Caesar. The church itself is not simply a “religious” institution but a political body taking up space within the world, growing up like a mustard seed. Yet it is not one body revolutionarily contesting with other political bodies in limited space for authority over others; rather, it is a body within, among, and for the world. The church is not itself God’s kingdom, but to the degree to which it conforms and participates in God’s inbreaking kingdom, it witnesses to a new way of being and life together. In the theopolitical imagining of Acts, “Jesus is Lord” is a political claim, and the idolatrous claims, economic exploitation, social divisions, and violent strategies of worldly powers are deconstructed. To what degree can communities of Jesus today, in a different political reality in many ways, practice this alternate political reality together within the world and for the world? This is a major question for a church that proclaims Jesus as Lord, and a question that continues to be profitably engaged through a reading of Acts.

Recommended Essays in the Commentary

Chronology of Acts
Designations of Early Christians
Holy Spirit, The, in the Bible and in Acts
Luke and the Jewish Law
Name of Jesus, The
Speaking in Tongues
Witness in Acts

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Invitation to Comment

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—Timothy W. Reardon

—Published BCBC commentary by Chalmer E. Faw