1 Peter

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1 & 2 Peter, Jude, by Erland Waltner and J. Daryl Charles (Believers Church Bible Commentary)

Introduction

Relevance

Themes of suffering and hope pervade 1 Peter. The recipients of the letter are scattered throughout five different provinces of the first-century Roman Empire. They are immigrants fleeing persecution and living on the margins of society with few or no human rights. Besides providing encouragement and hope, Peter calls them to suffer and submit rather than to retaliate. The strategy is to respond to evil with blessing (3:9).

Anabaptist theology was also born in suffering and hope. For decades and centuries, Believers Church Anabaptists challenged the political and religious status quo and were persecuted and marginalized as a result.

Still committed to a theology of nonviolence, Anabaptists today challenge the conventional method of repaying evil with more violence. This is still put to the test in various areas of the world where Christians are marginalized and mistreated. However, the economic and political circumstances of many Anabaptists today in higher-income, democratic countries may be quite different from those of the original recipients of this letter. First Peter must first be interpreted through the eyes of the original recipients.

Date, Setting, Author

Our text names “Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ” as the author of this letter (1:1), although he has written “through Silvanus, . . . a faithful brother” (5:12). Peter’s “sister church in Babylon” sends greetings (5:13). (Scholars generally see Babylon as a pseudonym for Rome, since both represent the capital of a dominating, pagan culture.) There is evidence that Peter was in Rome from 62–64 CE, being martyred in 64 CE. Tradition brings Peter, Silvanus, and his “son Mark” (5:13) together in Rome.

However, the situation in the five provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia—about 128,000 square miles now part of Turkey--suggests a later date. There is no record of Paul having visited Pontus, Cappadocia, and Bithynia. Time is needed to spread the gospel throughout this area, as well as the development of the social conflict between the Jesus-followers and their neighbors. John Elliott suggests the situation reflects a date no earlier than 70 or 75 CE (Elliott 2007: 5-6).

Erland Waltner (19) offers three different views (such as the apostle Peter and Silvanus acting as Peter’s secretary) as well as a longer essay on “Authorship” (176-78), where he lists pros and cons of the debate. For convenience, we will use Peter.

Two related words identify the recipients. In 1:1, Peter calls them parepididēmois (NRSV, “exiles of the Dispersion”; CEB, “strangers in the world of the diaspora”). The BDAG Greek Lexicon adds “sojourner, resident alien.” A related word is paroikos—“one who lives in a place that is not one’s home.” Both words are used in 2:11 where they are translated as “aliens and exiles” (NRSV) or “immigrants and strangers in the world” (CEB).

These terms have often been understood spiritually—as Christians living in a pagan culture where they are not “at home.” But more recently, social context scholars like John H. Elliott have also interpreted them in their late first century context. As persecution increased and believers fled north and westward, their political and economic situations would likely have matched what Peter described in his letter.

Form and Structure

The literary form of 1 Peter is that of a genuine letter written by a church leader to a specific group of Jesus-believers. Peter calls them “exiles of the Dispersion” to five different Roman provinces of Asia Minor. He identifies them with very positive language—“chosen,” “sanctified,” and “sprinkled with the blood of Jesus” (1:1-2).

The letter ends with a typical closing (5:12-14), as described above. Peter establishes a personal bond with his addressees. He may have known some of them personally, or at least by reputation. Though similar to the letters of Paul, Peter writes not just to believers in one city or province, but to a wider geographical expanse where Christians are more dispersed and in need of spiritual encouragement.

The letter is focused on one integrated, but ironic, line of thought. You may be stateless aliens and exiles suffering on the margins of human society—but in God’s sight you are citizens, a holy nation, God’s own people! Though humiliated in subordinate positions in this culture, do not return evil for evil. Take the initiative by practicing goodness and kindness in return. In this way you will be sharing in Christ’s sufferings—and eventually you will also share in his glory.

Literary Analysis

The outline below follows Waltner’s in his commentary. An article by Mary Schertz, “Nonretaliation and the Haustafeln in I Peter,” focuses on the literary artistry of the major teaching section of the letter. Here is a brief sketch.

Thesis: Passages 2:11–4:11 and 4:12–5:11 are constructed in parallel fashion and are mirror images of each other.

Explanation: 2:11–4:11 has to do with relations between believers and the pagan, hierarchical culture they live in. In contrast, 4:12–5:11 has to do with relations among the members of the believing community itself.

2:11 and 4:12—Peter begins both sections by calling the recipients “Beloved.” 4:11—the first section closes with “to him belong glory and dominion for ever and ever.” 5:11—the second section closes with “to him be the dominion for ever and ever. Amen”

The modern reader sees this visually, but to the ancient hearers, the oral Greek presentation may have struck them even more forcefully.

The central parts of each section deal with the “household codes”: 2:18-20; 3:1-7—injunctions to slaves, wives, and husbands interacting with the pagan culture surrounding them. 5:1-5—injunctions to elders and youth within the believing community itself

Outline of 1 Peter

(adapted from Waltner: 174-75)

The Opening Greeting, 1:1-2

Name and Title of the Writer

Description of Recipients

Grace and Peace

The Celebration of Christian Hope and Its Impact, 1:3-12

The Ground and Assurance of Christian Hope, 1:3-5

The Joyful Benefits of Christian Hope, 1:6-9

The High Privilege of Christian Hope, 1:10-12

The Changed Lifestyle of Hope, 1:13–2:3

Hope Changes the Lifestyle, 1:13-21

The Call to Holy Love, 2:22-2:3

The Community of Hope, 2:4-10

Come to the Living Stone, 2:4-5

As Understood in Scripture, 2:6-8

You Are God’s Own People, 2:9-10

Christian Witness in Hostile Society, 2:11–3:12

True Witness of Maligned Believers, 2:11-12

Witness as “Citizens” under a Hostile State, 2:13-17

Witness as Slaves Following Jesus, 2:18-25

Christian Witness in Marriage, 3:1-7

Witness of the Unified, Forgiving Community, 3:8-12

Response to Suffering for Righteous Living, 3:13–4:19

Christian Suffering in Light of Christ’s Suffering, 3:13–4:6

Suffering in Light of Coming Judgment, 4:7-19

Leadership and Loyalty in the Suffering Church, 5:1-11

Calls to Leadership, Loyalty, Humility, and Trust, 5:1-7

Call to Resist Evil, 5:8-9

Benediction and Doxology, 5:10-11

Final Greetings and Benediction, 5:12-14

Summary and Comment

A Living Hope 1:3-12

Peter begins on a very positive note in 1 Peter 1:3-12. Although he recognizes various trials and fiery testing the recipients are undergoing, the action of God to provide mercy and hope is overwhelming (vv. 6-7). Though Jesus is unseen by them, they can rejoice with “a glorious joy that is too much for words” (v. 8). It was revealed even to the prophets of old that they were not serving themselves but you! (v. 12).

Hope Changes Believers’ Lifestyle 1:13-2:3

Since the above is true, Peter calls his audience to change their minds to prepare for action (v. 13). Forget your old desires and focus on your new inheritance through Christ. You have been “born anew” to live forever! (v. 23). Now you must act and live in a new way. Your interpersonal relationships must change. Get rid of deceit, envy, and slander. Stay awake and alert; remain sober so you can think clearly!

The Community of Hope 2:4-10

But Peter’s goal is not to encourage these scattered individuals to live out their theology alone. Jesus is a “living stone,” to which “alien” believers must come, also as “living stones.” In this broad expanse in Asia Minor, they must seek out each other and build house churches from these “living stones” (vv. 4-5). In a world where they are not “at home,” they need each other to create together “a home for the homeless” (to quote from John Elliott’s 1981 book of that title).

Peter backs up his statements by using “stone” imagery drawn from Isaiah 28:16 (LXX) and Psalm 118:22.

Christian Witness in Hostile Society 2:11-3:12

True Witness of Maligned Believers 2:11-12

Peter recognizes his readers as “aliens and exiles,” but as a pastor, he also calls them “beloved,” asking them to abstain from “worldly desires.” For people in this marginal situation, this might include temptations to violence when unjustly accused or mistreated by cruel masters.

Witness as Citizens under a Hostile State 2:13-17

In the Roman Empire of Peter’s day, the issue of rights and privileges as citizens was both confused and oppressive. They could vary from one province to the next. Around this time, emperor worship was beginning to be required.

There is debate about 2:13: “accept the authority of every human institution” (NRSV). The Greek word hypotassō has a range of meanings, such as “obey, be subordinate to,” “accept the authority of,” or “defer to.” Waltner agrees with Paul Achtemeier that Peter here “advocates finding one’s proper place and acting accordingly. . . .It is not a command unquestioningly to obey anything anyone says” (182).

Since 1950, scholars have questioned the translation of “every human institution” (NRSV, CEB). The Greek term is anthrōpinē ktisei—literally, “human creature.” This shifts the focus from the social structures to the human person (emperor, governors, vv. 13-14). In other words, rebellion won’t get you anywhere in this hierarchical society; instead, accept the authority of whatever human person or persons you live or work under. This will vary from province to province, or from different roles or stations in life.

Witness as Slaves Following Jesus 2:18-25

The typical Greek word for “slave” is doulos. That word is used in 2:16: “as slaves of God.” But here Peter gets more specific. In verse 18, he addresses hearers as oiketai (household slaves, from the Greek word for “house,” oikos), and masters as despotai. Though the two words for “slave” can mean the same, doulos includes a broader range of types of bonded labor.

By addressing slaves as rational human beings, Peter acknowledges their status as true moral agents. They can choose to defer to the authority of their masters. “This is a direct challenge to the evil system of slavery, in which moral responsibility is denied to the slave" (Waltner: 90). In this way, slaves are acting like Jesus (2:21-23).

However, in the American context, this text was totally misinterpreted by slave owners within the system of Black slavery. The owners assumed that the institution of slavery was justified, even divinely ordained. Peter assumes that the institution of slavery is pagan and inherently cruel. Rather than addressing the owners, Peter directs the instructions toward the victims who have no choice about being free or about “suffering unjustly” (v. 19). The moral choice they have is the attitude they take. In this way, they follow the example of Jesus, who, when abused, did not return abuse (v. 23).

Christian Witness in Marriage 3:1-7

The same instruction to slaves is now given to Christian wives, including those whose husbands are not believers. In the Greco-Roman world, it was expected that the wife would worship the same gods worshiped by her husband (which was also expected of everyone else in the household).

But Peter challenges that custom and encourages wives of unbelieving husbands to defer to their authority as a way to win them over to Christ. Unlike in pagan marriages, Christian wives are moral agents and should keep their faith. Their example is Christ in 2:21.

By using the Greek word homoiōs (“in the same way,” v. 1 NRSV; “likewise,” CEB), Peter asks the same behavior of wives as he does of slaves in 2:18. This is a missionary strategy in a context of rigid, pagan hierarchy. Sarah’s deference to Abraham is a model for Christian wives (v. 6), even though that situation was quite different.

Michaels asserts that “the notion that women are . . . weaker than men was commonplace in the ancient world. But Peter uses it not to denigrate women, but to foster respect” (169). They were the “weaker partner” only in this ancient economic structure heavily dependent on physical labor.

In 3:7, the same strategy is presented to Christian husbands: “Submit by living with your wife in ways that honor her, knowing that she is the weaker partner [in that social context]. Honor her all the more, as she is a coheir of the gracious care of life. Do this so that your prayers will not be hindered” (CEB, emph. added). Paul Achtemeier asserts: “The point is clear: men who transfer cultural notions about the superiority of men over women in the Christian community lose their ability to communicate with God” (218).

Unfortunately, many churches still take these instructions out of their original context and assume male leadership and superiority. The original context—deferring to authority in a pagan hierarchy as an interim strategy for mission—is not considered.

Witness of the Unified, Forgiving Community 3:8-12

As stated above, Peter had begun this section (2:11–3:12) by addressing the whole Christian community as aliens and exiles. After encouraging them as slaves, wives, and husbands, he again speaks to the entire Christian community. He closes this section with a series of exhortations that have parallels in Romans 12:14-17, in parts of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount, and in the passage in Psalm 34:12-16, which he quotes in vv. 10-12.

We should note that, in this section, Peter is not creating new instructions for righteous living. Indeed, they have been standards of behavior for God’s people for centuries. Waltner (101-2) notes the terms Peter uses to describe how believers are to relate to each other:

• with “unity of spirit” (cf. “the same mind that was in Christ Jesus” Phil 2:5; cf. Rom 12:16);
• with sympathy or “compassion” for each other (cf. Rom 12:15),
• with agape love for each other,
• with a “tender heart” that gives oneself to others, and
• with a humble mind—no inflated assessment of oneself in relation to others, directly following the model of Jesus Christ (Matt 11:29).

Christian Response to Suffering for Righteous Living 3:13-4:19

Christian Suffering in Light of Christ’s Suffering 3:13-22

Peter continues talking about suffering and how believers should deal with it in their circumstances. Stressing that a person could suffer for either doing good or doing evil (v. 17), Christians must be clear about what they believe (vv. 15-16). The pattern to follow is Christ, who likewise suffered for the sins of others (v. 18)—although his suffering was “once for all.” See also Romans 5:2 and Ephesians 2:18 and 3:12 for the assertion that Jesus’s death—and subsequent resurrection—provided a new access to God.

However, 3:18-22 is a very complex passage that includes references to Noah’s ark and to extracanonical writings such as 1 Enoch. Waltner (128-30) sees this imagery as providing encouragement to the suffering Christians, even if to us the passage remains puzzling. Schertz (277-78) adds that they need to see that resistance to evil “is grounded in a hope that is, in turn, grounded in cosmic reality.”

Schertz analyzes 3:19-22 as a chiasm. It begins and ends with Jesus Christ. But in the center the author brings in Noah’s ark and parallels it with believers having their own salvific ark in the communal bonds of baptism. She agrees with Waltner that we may never know exactly what the author had in mind.

The Value of Suffering Like Christ 4:1-6

Here Peter explains the positive values of suffering. Just as Christ suffered, “arm yourselves also with the same intention” (v. 1). Although this could be interpreted in various ways, Waltner prefers the option that those who have chosen Christ have turned away from sin. Their intention is to live by the will of God and not by human desires.

The term “Gentiles” in 4:3 refers only to pagans from these five Roman provinces, since by this time the missionary work of Paul and many others would have brought in many non-Jews as “chosen people.”

Verse 6 is controversial: “the gospel was proclaimed even to the dead”? There are three possible views. (1) They are the same dead to whom Jesus preached in 3:19. (2) The spiritually dead in any age who need the gospel. (3) The believers in the Christian communities of Asia Minor who have already died. Waltner prefers the third position, which fits with Peter’s concern to encourage his readers. By the later first century, many believers would have died or have been martyred. They are vindicated for their choice and lifestyle.

Christian Suffering in View of the Coming Judgment 4:7-19

The Loving and Serving Community Facing the End 4:7-11 “The end of all things is near”! warns Peter in 4:7. After calling believers to a life of prayer, they must maintain mutual love for each other—for love “covers a multitude of sins!”

Peter calls the believers to be good “stewards” of God’s grace and to serve each other with their gifts (v. 10). A steward has a responsible place in a household, similar to the image of living stones built into a house in 2:4-10. Just as the Greco-Roman household involves not only the immediate family but many servants and clients, so Christian “stewards” should look out for their fellow believers in God’s household.

Facing Suffering for the Sake of Christ 4:12-19 How should Christians face experiences of suffering? Peter responds in five ways: 4:12 Expect suffering—some of it happens to test you. 4:13-14 Rejoice in suffering—insofar as you are sharing in Christ’s sufferings. 4:15 Examine yourself in suffering—it should not be for wrong reasons like murder or theft. 4:16-18 Glorify God in suffering—do not consider it a cause for shame. 4:19 Trust God and keep on doing good (only here is God called a faithful Creator)

Leadership and Loyalty in the Suffering Church 5:1-11

The word “elder” has both general and particular meanings (5:1). Leaders are called both “shepherds” and “elders,” but are generally older persons as well. This practice was taken over from Judaism. (With a lower life expectancy at that time, most “elders” were probably people in their 30s.)

The “shepherd” imagery was already present in the prophetic writings of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. Jesus uses it in the Gospels. Thus, people of faith are “the flock of God” (v. 2). See also Jesus’s commission to Peter in John 21:16: “feed my sheep.”

Certain qualities are involved in shepherding a church: it is voluntary and not driven by monetary reward. It does not domineer over the “flock.” Peter calls for humility and integrity, promising that “when the chief shepherd appears, elders will receive an unfading “crown of glory” (v. 4).

Meanwhile, all followers of Jesus need to cast all their anxieties on God, because “he cares for you” (v. 7). Resist the devil, know that “your brothers and sisters in all the world are undergoing the same kinds of suffering” (v. 9). Peter ends with a benediction and doxology, promising that God will “restore, support, strengthen, and establish you” (v. 10).

Conclusion 5:12-14

There are several theories about Silvanus (or Silas) as Peter’s “faithful brother”: (1) He was the scribe recording the letter; (2) he carried the letter to Asia Minor but was not involved with the writing; or (3) Peter and Silvanus cowrote the letter, but only Silvanus delivered it to Asia Minor. Waltner prefers the third view. It may explain why the Greek language is more refined than we would expect from Peter (if he was the author). It also helps account for various similarities to the Apostle Paul’s letters—Silvanus was one of Paul’s coworkers (Acts 16:19; 18:5; and 2 Cor 1:19).

And who is “my son Mark” in verse 13? In Acts 12:25, he is a companion of Barnabas and is also mentioned in Colossians 4:10 and Philemon 24.

The purpose of the letter was to “encourage” the suffering and marginalized Jesus-believers scattered throughout five provinces of Asia Minor. They are to stand fast in God’s true grace. The letter comes from “your sister church in Babylon,” where “Babylon” was often understood as a symbolic name for Rome (e.g., Revelation 14:8, 17:5).

Appropriately, a call to peace and forgiving love ends the letter.

Conclusion and the Anabaptist Tradition

No letter in our New Testament more vividly characterizes a scattered church of “exiles,” “resident aliens,” and “immigrants” better than 1 Peter! They live within five Roman provinces now located in present-day Turkey. The themes of both “patient suffering” and “hope” pervade the letter. With the example of Jesus’ life and death, and with no political or economic status in the world, his followers are called to copy Jesus’ method of not returning evil for evil, abuse for abuse. In this way, they provide a moral example of patient endurance that will ultimately be rewarded.

However, traditional readers of this letter have identified Peter’s audience as Christians of any socio-economic status—powerful or powerless. Thus, the letter’s meaning was spiritualized, its encouragement for poor, immigrant, and marginalized communities diminished. In addition, instructions to slaves and married women in various cultures were, and still are, misinterpreted and cruelly misused.

But the meanings shift as we explore the actual historical situation of Christians in the named Roman provinces at that time. We see more clearly the marginal and lonely status of the recipients. The suffering of our Anabaptist forebears, whose theology challenged that of their own cultural situations, mirrors that of the “exiles and aliens” receiving Peter’s letter. Just page through Martyrs Mirror!

In truth, any time and place in which Christians take Jesus’s teachings and example seriously—especially in political crises—will include suffering of various kinds. This letter should be taught and appropriated more often!

Many American Anabaptists have admired and sometimes emulated the method of nonviolent resistance promoted by Mahatma Gandhi or Dr. Martin Luther King. Less visible but effective has been the American Anabaptist refusal of young men to join the armed services and fight in our wars. Consequently, plans for alternative service to the country have worked out successfully. Nevertheless, an issue that has not gained traction is a resistance to paying taxes for the military, where most income taxes end up.

Interpreted correctly, the message of 1 Peter should be promoted to encourage Jesus-believers in many parts of the world—both democratic and autocratic. They/we are called to become “living stones” to create “homes for the homeless.” We are encouraged to maintain our moral teachings of nonviolent resistance to evil regardless of the cultures, customs, and laws under which we live.

Finally, 1 Peter may be the message to urge Christians in democratic countries to welcome exiles and aliens in our world today. As Jesus suffered for us, what is our responsibility for those suffering on the margins of society wherever we live?

Recommended Essays in the Commentary

Authorship
Christology
Eschatology
The Household Codes
Image of the Church and Church Leadership
A Theology of Suffering

Bibliography

• Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1996.

• Bauer, Walter, Frederick W. Danker, William Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. (BDAG)

• Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1995.

• Corley, Kathleen E. “1 Peter.” In Searching the Scriptures: A Feminist Commentary, edited by Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, 2:349-59. New York: Crossroad, 1994.

• Dyck, Cornelius J. Spiritual Life in Anabaptism. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1995.

• Elliott, John H. A Home for the Homeless: A Sociological Exegesis of 1 Peter, Its Situation and Strategy. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981.

• ______. Conflict, Community, and Honor: 1 Peter in Social-Scientific Perspective. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2007.

• Goppelt, Leonhard. A Commentary on 1 Peter. Edited by Ferdinand Hahn. Translated by John E. Alsup. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.

• Klassen, William. The Love of Enemies: The Way to Peace. Overtures to Biblical Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.

• Martyrs Mirror. Compiled by Thielman J. van Braght. Translated by Joseph F. Sohm. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1938.

• Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Word Biblical Commentary. Waco, Word, 1988.

• O’Connor, Elizabeth. Letters to Scattered Pilgrims. San Francisco: Harper, 1979.

• Perkins, Pheme. First and Second Peter, James, and Jude. Interpretation. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1995.

• Philips, Dirk. The Writings of Dirk Philips. Translated and edited by Cornelius J. Dyck. Classics of the Radical Reformation. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1992.

• Piper, John. “Hope Is the Motivation for Love: 1 Peter 3:9-12.” New Testament Studies 26 (1980): 212-31.

• Sattler, Michael. The Legacy of Michael Sattler. Translated and edited by John H. Yoder. Classics of the Radical Reformation. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1973.

• Schertz, Mary H. “Nonretaliation and the Haustafeln in 1 Peter.” In The Love of Enemy and Nonretaliation in the New Testament, edited by Willard M. Swartley, 258-86. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992.

• Swartley, Willard M., ed. The Love of Enemy and Nonretaliation in the New Testament. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992.

• Waltner, Erland. “1 Peter” in Erland Waltner and J. Daryl Charles, 1-2 Peter, Jude, 13-200. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Scottdale, PA: Herald, 1999.

• Zerbe, Gordon M. Non-Retaliation in Early Jewish and New Testament Texts: Ethical Themes in Social Contexts. Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Supplement Series 13. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993.

Invitation to Comment

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—Lareta Finger

—Published BCBC commentary by Erland Waltner